The Age Of Revolutions
For standard 8th
By Della D'souza

This course will introduce you to the history of the Age of Revolutions in the Atlantic World from 1776 to 1848. You will learn about the revolutionary upheavals that took place in the Americas and Europe during this period. Each unit will include representative primary-source documents that illustrate important overarching political, economic, and social themes, such as the secession of the American colonies from the British Empire, the outbreak of the French Revolution, the dissolution of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires in the Americas, and the spread of revolutionary ideals throughout the Atlantic World. Running alongside and extending beyond these political revolutions is the First Industrial Revolution. By the end of the course, you will understand how an Atlantic World, dominated by European empires in 1776, was transformed through revolution into a series of independent states by 1848 and of the profound changes that Europe would experience, and continue to experience, through the development and consolidation of capitalism.

The Age of Revolution is the period from approximately 1775 to 1848 in which a number of significant revolutionary movements occurred in many parts of Europe and the Americas.^[1] The period is noted for the change in government from absolutist monarchies to constitutionalist states and republics. The Age of Revolution includes the American Revolution, the French Revolution, the Haitian Revolution, the Greek Revolution, the revolt of the slaves in Latin America, and the independence movements of nations in Latin America. The period would generally weaken the imperialist European states, who would lose major assets throughout the New World. For the British, the loss of the Thirteen Colonies would bring a change in direction for theBritish Empire, with Asia and the Pacific becoming new targets for outward expansion.

American Revolution (1775–1783)[edit]

Main article: American Revolution

The thirteen colonies of British America famously become independent in the American Revolution of 1776. The movement was the first European colony to claim independence and saw the application of democracy, a constitution, and civil rights, none of which were unheard of but were unique in their combination. This was the birth of the United States of America which would go on to become a world power.

French Revolution (1789–1799)[edit]

Main article: French Revolution

The French Revolution was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799 that profoundly affected French and modern history, marking the decline of powerful monarchies and churches and the rise of democracy and nationalism. Popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and aristocracy grew amidst an economic crisis following two expensive wars and years of bad harvests, motivating demands for change. 

These were couched in terms of Enlightenment ideals and caused the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789.

Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)[edit]

Main article: Haitian Revolution

The Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) was a slave revolt in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, which culminated in the elimination of slavery there and the founding of the Republic of Haiti. The Haitian Revolution was the only slave revolt which led to the founding of a state. Furthermore, it is generally considered the most successful slave rebellion ever to have occurred and as a defining moment in the histories of both Europe and the Americas. The rebellion began with a revolt of black African slaves in August 1791. It ended in November 1803 with the French defeat at the battle of Vertières. Haiti became an independent country on January 1, 1804.

Spanish American Wars of Independence[edit]

Main article: Spanish American wars of independence

Latin America experienced the independence revolutions at this time that separate the colonies from Spain and Portugal, creating new nations. These movements were generally led by the ethnically Spanish but locally born Criollo class; these were often wealthy citizens that held high positions of power but were still poorly respected by the European-born Spaniards. One such Criollo was Simón Bolívar, who led several revolutions throughout South America and helped establish Gran Colombia. Another important figure was José de San Martín who helped create the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata and became the first president of Peru. Some Latin American revolts, such as the Haitian Revolution, were led by slaves.

Greek War of Independence (1821–1832)[edit]

Main article: Greek War of Independence

Greece in the early part of the 1800s was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. A series of revolts, starting in 1821, began the conflict. The Ottoman Empire sent in forces to suppress the revolts. By 1827, forces from Russia, Great Britain, and France entered the conflict, helping the Greeks drive the Turkish forces off the Peloponnese Peninsula. The Turks finally recognized Greece as a free nation in May 1832.

The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, improved efficiency of water power, the increasing use of steam power, and the development of machine tools.

It also included the change from wood and other bio-fuels to coal. Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested; the textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods.

The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries.

Important technological developments

The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations,^[20] beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies:

• Textiles – Mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker. The power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40.^[21]The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50.^[15] Large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton.

• Steam power – The efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel. The adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses.^[23] The high pressure engine had a high power to weight ratio, making it suitable for transportation.^[24] Steam power underwent a rapid expansion after 1800.

• Iron making – The substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron and wrought iron production.^[25] Using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces,^[26][27] resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760. It was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures. The puddling process produced a structural grade iron at a lower cost than the finery forge^[28] The rolling mill was fifteen times faster than hammering wrought iron. Hot blast (1828) greatly increased fuel efficiency in iron production in the following decades.

Summary

Enlightenment ideas about natural rights and rejection of absolutist authority inspired major revolutions in the late 1700s and early 1800s. Colonists in America declared independence from Britain in 1776 and created a government based on the ideas of Locke and Montesquieu. Influenced by the American Revolution, revolutionaries in France overturned the monarchy and created a new social order. Napoleon helped spread revolutionary ideals across Europe. Both the American and French Revolutions contributed to revolutions in Latin America in the early 1800s.